Gender Inequality Essay

It is not up for debate whether women are discriminated against in the workplace it is evident in census data; in 1998 women made 73 cents to the dollar paid to men. Even today, there is still a pay gap that exists between women and men. It is said that the organizations that are pro-equal pay, including some unions, support the idea that the government should set wages for all jobs. To the contrary, the organizations that are proponents of equal pay are not for job wages being set by the government-they wish to have the discrimination taken out of pay scales from within the company. Commonly, this pay gap is attributed to the fact that women in the United States are still expected to attend to familial obligations over work. Data shows that women do attend to family obligations, like having a child, caring for a sick family member, or caring for an elder; but they also do not give up on work. Yes, women often chose lower paying jobs in exchange for flexible hours and do spend a lower number of hours per week long-term at their jobs than their male counterparts. Because women are socialized to be the primary care givers they are kept at these lower paying jobs that are more flexible, the jobs allow them to care for their family yet still retain an income (possibly a second income for the household). Women’s changing roles in society has resulted in this workplace problem. Women are allowed and often encouraged to work but they are not rewarded or compensated at the same level, for their efforts, that men in the work force are. The pay gap would be narrowed if companies were more conducive to family schedules. Men and women would receive equal pay for the same job. Companies would benefit by retaining quality employees. Men and women need to start out making the same amount of money for the same job, companies need to offer women ample maternity leave, families need to be offered childcare (or childcare compensation), there needs to be a flexible work environment, and men should never be discouraged from taking paternity leave. It seems that women workers have reached a plateau in society. In order for women to be respected as men are) in the workplace there needs to be a redistribution of domestic and family work. It’s acceptable now for women to work; but this acceptance into the workforce has not drastically changed what they, women, are expected to perform at home. There is no way for women to move forward to equality in pay if they are not recognized as contributors to their job (i.e. women are still expected to perform outside of work in the family setting as well in a way that men are only expected to perform at work and not at home). As soon as more domestic and family work is allocated to men than women will be able to attain equal pay. Women, with less work at home, will be able to commit to full time jobs, have to leave the workforce less, take less leave, and be able to climb the corporate ladder just as men are today. Since 1942, gender inequality, at least in pay, can be traced. In 1942 the National War Labor Board issued a general order that authorized employers to make voluntary adjustments in salaries or pay in order to demonstrate gender equality (at least in jobs were women and men worked the exact same job and had comparable quality and quantity of work) (CNN). Rates of women in labor unions has been increasing since they have entered the workforce. Even with the increase of women union numbers this inequality of pay still exists. Women are encouraged by unions and other organizations to sue their employer if they are being treated unfairly in the workplace. Women are unlikely to pursue this option against their employers because of limited resources, i.e. money and time. Gender discrimination in the workplace is not only evident in the pay gap but also in sexual harassment and the â€Å"glass ceiling† in organizations. The term glass ceiling began as a reference to discrimination against women in the work force. â€Å"Glass ceiling† encompasses many different kinds of discrimination against women workers including but not limited to: differences in pay for comparable work, sexual harassment in the workplace, and companies that do not have family-friendly policies. The glass ceiling is an unwritten rule in many businesses. The ceiling is an invisible barrier that usually affects minorities and women. This barrier is extremely debilitating for women in their job because it makes them feel inferior and that their bosses do not take them seriously because of their sex. Women feel that their bosses aren’t taking them seriously because the bosses do not view them as potential candidates for the most prestigious positions in the establishment. The glass ceiling is another oppressive means used by corporate America to keep women out of powerful positions and keep them from raking in a lot of money; in terms of their gross income. A study done by the U.S Department of Labor in 1991 reviewed nine Fortune 500 companies and the results confirmed that workers in these companies, minorities and women especially, came into contact with the invisible barrier, â€Å"the glass ceiling†, very early on in their careers. The U.S. Supreme Court has designated two different types of sexual harassment in workplaces: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 is harassment that directly results in an employment outcome (ex. the harasser would say that if you don’t do X you will lose your job). Sexual harassment of Type 2 is not nearly as direct but creates a hostile work environment for the harassed worker. This hostile in environment can be created by rude gestures, sabotaged work, inappropriate name calling, vulgar jokes, unnecessary touching, comment on the appearance of others (physical attributes), etc. Women are now surpassing men in the amount of education, in years and higher degrees, they have. If the workforce does not allow them to pursue executive career options then they will find themselves unable to fill these positions. Women in 1996 earned 1,255,057 college degrees as compared to men who earned 992,638 degrees (Career Planning). The ever increasing amount of women furthering their education makes them more likely to want to enter the job market. Also, the longer a woman is in school the longer she will be in the workforce, when she enters it, because it is likely that she will delay childbearing. Even though female graduates may be even more qualified for a position than her male counterpart the woman will be much more likely to be recommended for a job as an assistant or secretary job than the man. She will be told that this assistant or secretarial job is her way to get her foot in the door at the company. The employers will act like this is a typical entry-level position when in fact a man in the same situation will immediately begin at a much higher level in the company. Women are over represented in the lower paying jobs in the company- almost all assistants and secretarial positions are filled by women while men crowd the top and fill the most prestigious positions in the company. This concentration of men at the top and women at the bottom is called â€Å"occupational segregation†. I began the Intro to Critical Feminist Studies course with a very clear idea of what feminism is yet I was hesitant to call myself a feminist. A feminist, to me, is someone who advocates for women’s rights and their equality as compared to men. Women and men are equal yet both are very different. A feminist is someone who capitalizes on and embraces the differences between men and women. Anyone can be a feminist but feminism, to me, means only advocating for women’s issues like gender discrimination in the workplace. Through the semester my definition of feminism has not changed drastically; yet I am much more willing to associate myself with this movement/name. My hesitation in calling myself a feminist was based on worries about the social implications of the word â€Å"feminist†. I don’t judge people merely because they attach this label to themselves or associate with other â€Å"feminists† so there must have been some deeper concern about the social implications of being one, a feminist. I don’t think that individuals necessarily associate being a feminist with negative things but that socially, in group situations and in the larger context of society and politics, being labeled as a feminist will limit your options. Specifically, I am concerned with the implications of being a â€Å"feminist† in the workplace. The workplace, to me, is the center of the politically correct and somehow labeling yourself a feminist makes you politically incorrect and socially awkward. Labeling yourself a feminist, ironically, attributes a male characteristic to you, i.e. confidence. Because feminists are labeled with this confidence and that they have such a clear idea of what injustices against women are they are outcasts. This topic, gender discrimination in the workplace, is related to a topic in my previous papers, women and healthcare. The job market is probably the most influential factor in an individual’s ability to obtain health insurance. This job-place discrimination against women indirectly affects the quality of healthcare available to most American women. It’s important to me to have equality in the workplace because I am a women and I don’t deserve to make less money than a male-counterpart just because of my sex. Even if it is the case that women are in and out of the labor force (more than men) because of familial obligations there is no cause for this discrimination in the workplace. Women are in and out of the labor market caring for men, men’s children, and men’s relatives yet women get paid less than men for the same job. There is even more cause for the wage gap to be closed because women’s roles are changing; many women are both mothers an d workers. In the past, maybe it was OK (not just but socially acceptable) for women to make less money than men because men were the providers and the woman’s income was play money. This is no longer the case. Women are now equal providers for their family, possibly the bigger earner, and frequently the sole provider for their household (single moms etc.). A female that just graduated from college with a major in marketing calls an agency to schedule an interview. She gets to the interview on time, well dressed, and ready to be hired. The interview proceeds and the interviewer is impressed with her resume; but is very interested in her typing speed. The interviewer takes the recent grad to another room, a computer lab, where she is sat down and prepared to take a typing test-to determine her words per minute. While typing, she sees an acquaintance of hers from school and he is applying to work for the agency as well. Her male acquaintance is interviewed by the same person yet he is immediately suggested for a position in the company without taking a typing test. The interviewer suggested the taping test for the female grad because having good typing skills would help her get her â€Å"foot in the door†, i.e. she could start out as an assistant or secretary. Even though both prospective employees, the woman and the man, had equit able educations the woman was not encouraged/allowed by the interviewer to enter the ranks of the business as anyone but a secretary (Career Planning). Some examples of gender discrimination in the workplace are: women not being hired for a position (which they are qualified for) because the company’s long-time clients feel more comfortable dealing with men, during company cutbacks men with the same job with less seniority keep their job over a woman who has been working for the company for a long time, and women not being able to attain a promotion even though they qualify for it (the woman has exemplary reviews and has earned many awards in her position (like employee of the year, etc.) the promotion is given to a less qualified male). After the National War Labor Board issued general order sixteen the fight for equal pay continues. President John F. Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act in 1963. This Act signed by JFK applied to 27.5 million workers (both men and women) and required â€Å"employees doing work requiring equal skill, effort and responsibility- and work performed under similar working conditions-be paid equal wages† (CNN). In subsequent years, following both the general order sixteen and the Equal Pay Act, numerous bills and acts have been passed to guarantee women and men equal pay for the same job; yet the pay gap still exists today. A more recent statistic on the pay difference, from 2000, found that women still make .80 cents to the dollar that’s paid to their male counterparts (GAO). A few women have been compensated for their lost wages. The Department of Labor’s Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, OFCCP, began reviewing corporate management systems in 1993. The OFCCP began the review process after President Bill Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act. This Act protects workers jobs guaranteeing them at least twelve months of unpaid leave due to the birth of a child or extreme family circumstances (someone is very ill, etc.). These reviews of corporate management systems has been instrumental in paying back wages to women. One of the OFCCP’s reviews included an evaluation of Fairfax Hospital in Virginia. The hospital, as a result of its preliminary review by the OFCCP, agreed to pay over $425,000 in back wages to 52 female workers ; these workers were â€Å"employed in the top six grades of the hospital’s personnel structure† (CNN). Also, after the hospital’s review they gave 44 out of the 52 women pay raises, which gave these individuals more than $178,000 (extra) in total. These raises account for more than $4,000 a year extra income for each woman. Out of all the corporate reviews by OFCCP, the largest settlement was with CoreStates Financial Institution in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As a result of their review CoreStates paid more than 1.5 million dollars to women and minorities to compensate them for (past) pay discrimination. In addition to paying the 1.5 million dollars to workers CoreStates paid more than â€Å"334,000†, in salary adjustments to 76 women and 66 members of minorities† (CNN). The monetary compensation does not address the root of why women are paid less than men. If companies are willing to settle with the OFCCP and pay lost wages to female workers then they obviously recognize the injustice they are committing in the pay scales. Even with the passage of numerous acts that require employers to give equal pay the gap still continues between women and men’s salaries. From the 1960’s when JFK signed the Equal Pay Act the number of women workers was at an all-time high. From the beginning of the 60’s to the mid 70’s more than half the increase in the amount of workers in the labor force was made up of women. Most of these women were married and delayed having children so they could stay in the labor force longer. Even though women’s primary obligations are to their families they still do remain in the workforce after having children. Families can’t make it without the second income provided by the female. Women are in and out of the labor force but only to recover from childbirth; the number of working moms in 2006 was over 2.6 million. More than 72 percent of mothers in the Unites States, with children under the age of 18, are either employed part or full-time. Women are in hostile environments at home and at work. Women are paid less than men for the same job, are sexually harassed at work, and are cornered into low paying demeaning work. Even though women are expected to be equal providers for their family they are also expected to be the primary caretaker of their family. It is impossible for women to excel in both arenas if they are not granted equality. This equality would include either redistribution of domestic and family work (while women continue to work in the office) or equal respect for â€Å"women’s work† (women staying at home while men work in the office).

Introduction To Enrollment System Essay

INTRODUCTION Enrollment system is one of the most important and evident, not only in a university, but also in lower levels of education. An accurate and efficient enrollment records helps to ensure a good impression of the institution on possible enrollees encouraging them to matriculate in the institution. The purpose of an enrollment process is to provide a means for staffs and the faculty to write down data that are essential to enrollment. As the enrollees increase every year, the enrollment procedures become harder and harder to deal. The amount of information that needs to be jot down also increases. This only serves to slower process and confusion among the staffs and faculty. Also, unexpected problems such as loss of information may occur. A manual process of enrollment system takes more time and effort and causes delays of transaction. The unsystematic procedure of school during enrollment is now dreaded by them. Instead student enrollees have to stand and wait of finishing it in an hour or two, sometimes students are made to come back the next day or even after a week so that they can be officially enrolled. The process would also be burden for those students and parents who would line-up for hours just to get enrolled and paid. This problem will be eliminated in this proposed system. The idea behind an enrollment system is not a new concept. As enrollees increase every year, enrollment procedures become harder to deal. This will only serve to increase the problem facing enrollment that provides more easy way in enrolling. It will help their institution to have another system that will upgrade enrollment processes so as to meet the quality that their institutions are trying to meet. Technology has been a part of our daily lives. Billions of people are using computer and we need to be aware of all the things around us to respond properly. Today, the use of technology has been an effective tool on improving such kind of enrollment system. See more: how to write an introduction Enrolment system using LAN will provide the needs in storing information in a faster, more convenient way of storing files of the enrollees in a computer system. It will lessen the effort of faculty and staff in storing files of each pupil every now and then. This will also serve as information  especially for the new enrollees, transferee, and teacher in able to get access in subject, and pupils. This information here can be viewed just a second without worrying that a single file is lost. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The burden of section states that the questions the researchers used in proposed study, the enrollment system of Lasam West,Central School Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How is the enrollment process in the institution? 2. What are the problems encountered by the assigned staff on the current enrollment process? 3. What should be done to solve the problems encountered by the staff? 4. What is the perception of the end users of the Computerized Enrollment System in terms of: a. Usability? b. Design? c. User friendliness? d. Error handling? e. Reliability? and f. Acceptability? 5. What is the overall performance level of the system as perceived by the respondents? OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of this study is to design and to develop a Computerized System for the enrollment of the pupils in the School. Specifically, it aims to: 1. Determine the procedures of enrolment process by the faculty and staff and their advisers of the School. 2. Identify the problems encountered by the teachers, advisers, and pupils in relation to the present procedures of enrollment. 3. Find out and provide solution to the problems encountered by the pupils, the teachers and advisers in relation to enrolment; 4. Determine the perception of the end users of the enrollment system in terms of its; a. Usability b. Design c. Error handling e. Reliability f. Acceptability 5. Verify the overall performance level of the system as perceived by the respondents; a. Usability b. Design c. Error handling e. Reliability f. Acceptability SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The main output of this study will be beneficial to the following stakeholders: The Institution. The Computerized Enrollment System will eventually raise the quality of services offered by the School. The Faculty and Staff. The system will lessen the repetitive, time-consuming enrollment records monitoring tasks of the faculty of the School. The system provides posting the names and level of pupils and automatically generates individual pupils information, list of subjects, classify pupils in their grade level. The Registrar. The system will ultimately lessen the burden of the registrar in issuing enrolment form for retrieving and storing data purposes.  The Advisers. Since the system provides list of pupils with deficiencies, this will help the advisers to identify pupils needing assistance and counseling. The Pupils. The development of the Computerized Enrollment System will make the enrollment process faster than the usual method of process and will consequently lessen enrollment time. The electronic database created with the system will eventually lessen the time. The Researcher. This study will enable the researcher to be more familiar in terms of the enrollment process of pupils particularly the transferees. Also, this will aid the developer to have more aptitude in computer programming and to have a supplementary enhancement in his skills in  analyzing and organizing information. The Future Researchers. The study will serve as a ready reference for other researchers who may wish to conduct a similar system. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study is focused on the design and development of a Computerized Enrollment System of each pupils enrolled at Lasam West Central School, Cabatacan East, Lasam Cagayan. The time they are admitted until they finished the grade school enrolled. 1. The proposed system is designed to accept personal information of the enrollee which includes ethnic affiliation and feeder school. 2. The system generates reports such as individual enrollment sheets of pupils, like distribution of pupils by address, age profile, minority group profile, gender profile, and enrollment data. 3. The system is designed in a local area network which will facilitate in providing an electronic database for the storage of enrollment obtained by pupils every year which will serve as basis for monitoring their enrollment information and classifying them into grade levels. 4. Servers will be managed by the assigned member of the faculty of each institute to the information of the enrollee. They will be the ones who will manage all the records of each student may it be a newcomers or transferees. 5. A full backup internally backs up the entire database, which includes part of the transaction log, so that the entire database will be recovered to the point in time at which the backup will be completed. It’s very important to analyze and understand the amount of free space required for full backup’s on the server. During a full backup, the backup operation basically copies only the data that is available in the database to the backup file. The free or unused space which was available in the database is completely discarded. The proposed automated enrollment system was purely for enrollment only. It doesn’t support any grading system. Each of the information is stored at the server where the proposed system will be LAN-Based. The system is not designed to generate ID because of the contract between the school and the photographer regarding the school’s ID’s. This study is limited only on the information provided by the Lasam West, Central School. DEFINITION OF TERMS Computer—it is the primary tool where the system will be installed. Network. It is a group of computers and other devices that are connected and share resources Performance. It is the capability or ability of a system to work along the developments. Security. The ability to prevent unauthorized access whether accidental or deliberate to programs or data. Server. This refers to the main terminal in a network. It handles and manages the operations in a network. Software. It refers to the program for a computer to work System. It refers to any collection of component elements for the network to perform a task Usability. This refers to one of the indicators of software performance which focuses on the functionality of the system and can be used by specific user to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use. User friendliness. This refers to one of the indicators of software performance which focuses on the functionality and usability of the system. Accuracy. The provision of right or agreed results or effects Design. This refers to the process of planning and problem-solving for a software solution. Error-handling. It refers to the anticipation, detection and resolution of programming, application and communication error. Enrollment form- This is a document which lists down the required subjects of the enrollee.

Sustainable Tourism Development

This article was downloaded by: [113. 210. 1. 106] On: 22 March 2013, At: 07:28 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Sustainable Tourism Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www. tandfonline. com/loi/rsus20 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Jackie Clarke Version of record first published: 29 Mar 2010.To cite this article: Jackie Clarke (1997): A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5:3, 224-233 To link to this article: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09669589708667287 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www. tandfonline. com/page/ terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, lo an, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Jackie ClarkeSchool of Business, Oxford Brooks University, Wheatley Campus, Wheatley, Oxford OX33 1HX Based on an extensive literature review, this paper proposes a framework of approaches to sustainable tourism. The framework is composed of four positions, chronologically sequenced according to th e dominant understanding of sustainable tourism as a possession or goal. The positions are those of polar opposites, continuum, movement and convergence. The framework offers insights into the development of the sustainable tourism concept and enables identification of an author’s approach to the concept. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013Introduction The understanding of sustainable tourism has developed from the early ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable tourism’ debate, to the acceptance that research energy should be channelled into practical ways of assisting all forms of tourism to move towards sustainability. The fundamental difference is the assumption of the former, that sustainable tourism is, in some manner, already a possession of certain types of tourism or situation, against the acknowledgement of the latter, that sustainable tourism is not an inherent characteristic of any existing form or situation, but a goal that all touris m must strive to achieve.The tremendous volume of output on the subject over the last decade (Brown, 1991) has contributed to the recognised ambiguity in terminology (Beioley, 1995; De Kadt, 1990; Lanfant & Graburn, 1992; Murphy, 1994; Pearce, 1992, etc. ) and the surfeit of labels. For example, ecotourism has no unequivocal usage. It has been expressed as a symbiotic relationship between tourism and nature conservation (Farrell & Runyan, 1991; Valentine, 1993), been equated with nature tourism (Boo, 1990), and constructed as a Venn diagram (Buckley, 1993; Wight, 1995). Occasionally, labels are combined to produce hybrids (see, for example, Dernoi, 1988; Wight,l995).As a concept, sustainable tourism is still evolving. A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Based on a critical literature review of both academic and industry contributions, the proposed framework comprises four positions of understanding of sustainable tourism. These four positions:  · are broadly chronolog ical, reflecting the dominant approach to sustainable tourism and offering insights into the concept’s development;  · provide a structure within which an author’s approach to the concept may be identified, affording insights for literature reviews.The framework is envisaged as complementary to other work (see, for example, Cazes, 1989; Pearce, 1992). As early literature commonly fixed on scale as the distinguishing feature, this is the unifying theme for the framework. As a 0966-9582/97/03 0224-10 $10. 00/0 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM  ©1997 J. Clarke Vol. 5, No. 3, 1997 224 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 225 criterion, scale has shifted from an emotive or even antagonistic role to neutral ground. An overview of the framework shows the positions forming two pairs.The first pair regard sustainable tourism as a current possession of a particular scale of tourism, whilst the second pair treat the phenomenon as a goal to be striven for. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 The first position of polar opposites A term adapted from Pearce (1992), the first, and probably the earliest of the four positions, was that of mass tourism and sustainable tourism conceived as polar opposites (see Figure 1). Alternative tourism was the popular label for sustainable tourism, mutual exclusion being implicit in the term.As a force, sustainable tourism was understood to be pulling away from mass tourism, which served as a point of repulsion (for commentary, see Butler, 1991; Cazes, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987; Nash, 1992; Richter, 1987; Travis, 1988; Valentine, 1993). Thus, sustainable tourism and mass tourism were stereotyped as the ‘good’ and the ‘bad’. The negative social and environmental impacts experienced at destinations were attributed solely to mass tourism, which was couched in emotive terms such s ‘hard’, ‘ghetto’, or ‘destructive’ tourism. Of course, mass tourism also related to scale, and the scale of the tourism involved was the principal defining characteristic for the polar opposite approach. Wheeller (199la) summarised scale as the focal point: the traveller is preferred to the tourist, the individual to the group, specialist operators rather than the large firms, indigenous accommodation to multi-national hotel chains, small not large — essentially good versus bad. Wheeller, l991a, author’s emphasis) Representing mass tourism, a Director of the Thomson Travel Group lampooned the approach by recounting his situation as an ecotourism speaker at a Royal Geographical Society gathering as being: rather like a cattle baron addressing a congress of vegetarians. (Brackenbury, 1992: l0) At its most extreme, advocates of alternative tourism pressed for a total replacement of mass tourism (cited in De Kadt, l990, 1992; Lanfant & Graburn, 1992) and of Cohen’s (1972) institutionalised tourist.Arguably, the position of polar opposites was strengthened by the presentation of mass versus sustainable characteristics in diametrically opposed tables (see, for example, Krippendorf, 1982; WTO, 1989). Such tables were developed into concrete notions of ‘bad’ versus ‘good’ (see Lane, 1989, 1990). ‘Mass tourism’ Conceptual barrier ‘Sustainable tourism’ Figure 1 Position 1: polar opposites 226 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Thus the earliest understanding of sustainable tourism was one of a dichotomised position.Believers in the polar opposite approach clearly regarded sustainable tourism as a possession of an existing type of tourism based on small scale characteristics. Ownership was claimed by tourism forms opposed to mass tourism. In short, small was synonymous with sustainable. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 The second position of a continuum By the 1990s, the original position of polar opposites was generally rejected as u nproductive, but the notion of a continuum between sustainable tourism and mass tourism presented a flexible adaptation of the earlier ideas (see Figure 2).In recognition that sustainable tourism utilised the infrastructure, transport and reservation systems of mass tourism (see De Kadt, 1990, 1992; Krippendorf, 1987; Wheeller, l991a), spawned an accompanying tourism industry structure (see Cohen, 1987, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987), and had the potential to develop into mass tourism if not properly managed (Butler, 1990, 1992; Tourism Concern, 1992), the simplicity of polar opposites was adjusted to a continuum between the two extremes. Variations were appropriately placed along the spectrum (see, for example, Davidson, 1992).Although allowing some measure of degree, the continuum understanding of sustainable tourism still regarded the phenomenon as a possession and used scale as the defining criterion. Polar opposites and continuum therefore formed a natural pair. However, the continuu m approach to sustainable tourism was only ever loosely established; understanding was moving in a new direction. ‘Mass tourism’ ‘Sustainable tourism’ Figure 2 Position 2: continuum Criticisms: too simple, too impractical Criticisms and queries have been voiced over these early approaches to sustainable tourism.The idea of polar opposites representing ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ was denounced as ‘grossly misleading’ (Butler, 1990). Most criticisms related to one or both of the following:  · Too simple: the inadequate appreciation of tourism as a dynamic and complex phenomenon resulting in the inherent flaws in this understanding of sustainable tourism.  · Too impractical: the question of scale and the inability of this narrow view of sustainable tourism to offer practical solutions to the global problem of the burgeoning volume of tourist arrivals.Tourism is a complex and dynamic phenomenon (Heath & Wall, 1992; Przeclawski , 1993), yet sustainable tourism from the polar opposite and continuum positions assumed a homogeneity and simplicity in conflict with reality (Cooper et al. , 1993). Faced with the dramatic growth in international tourism from the 25 million trips of 1950 (WTO, 1993) to the 531 million of 1994 (WTO, 1995a) and its continued predicted growth (WTO, l995b), the replacement of mass tourism with the sustainable tourism promoted by the two positions was illogical. Being small scale, sustainable tourism lacked the capability (Butler,A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 227 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 1990; Cohen, 1987; Cooper et al. , 1993; Fennell & Smale, 1992; Pearce, 1992). Sustainable tourism could neither manage the number of arrivals nor replace the economic benefits accrued (Butler, 1992; Cohen, 1987). For Wheeller (1990, l991a, l991b), the idea was a ‘micro solution’ struggling with a ‘macro problem’. Furthermore, this understanding was inward-looking, failing to recognise the importance of other industry sectors and the wider perspective of sustainable development (Hunter, 1995).Indeed, the second pair of positions better demonstrate the influence of the sustainable development landmarks that shaped the concept (for example, IUCN, 1980, 1991; The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987; the GLOBE ’90 and ’92 conferences; The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development with Agenda 21). Other criticisms concerned issues such as elitism (Cazes, 1989; Richter, 1987), the problems of ensuring local ownership and control (Cater, 1992), and inbalances in power (Wheeller, 1990, l991a, l991b).Butler (1990) argued that the approach to sustainable tourism portrayed a static picture of impacts. The revision of features related to time and process produced a less flattering scenario (Butler, 1990). For example, the more intense contact between host and guest over a longer duration resulted in greater damage to the fragile host culture than was readily apparent in the ‘good’ versus ‘bad’ tables. The emergence of these tables was partly a response to an over-simplistic interpretation of Krippendorf’s work (1982, 1987). Krippendorf (1987) was not opposed to mass tourism as long as it progressed towards ‘harmonious’ tourism.In fact, he urged that: only if we succeed in living with tourism as a mass phenomenon, ? , can we claim to have made a decisive step forward, (Krippendorf, 1982: 111, author’s emphasis) an assertion often overlooked by proponents of a polar opposite or continuum approach. The third position of movement Criticisms of the earlier understandings of sustainable tourism, coupled with a closer alignment to sustainable development, resulted in the demand to change mass tourism to more sustainable forms (see, for example, Bramwell, 1991; Butler, 1990, 1991; Cohen, 1987; De Kadt, 1 990; GLOBE, 1990; EIU, 1992).If the main problem of modern tourism is that of its huge number, (Krippendorf, 1987: 42, author’s emphasis) then mass tourism was the most visible and sensible candidate for initial reform. The sustainable tourism as understood under movement differed from the earlier definitions of sustainable tourism on three key dimensions:  · The issue of scale became more objective and less emotive. Mass tourism became the subject for improvement, rather than the derided villain.  · Sustainable tourism became the goal for attainment, rather than the possession of an existing scale of tourism. Operationalising current knowledge to move towards the goal became the 228 Journal of Sustainable Tourism (’mass tourism’) Large scale tourism Sustainable Tourism Goal Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Figure 3 Position 3: movement practical focus of effort, rather than the ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable tourismâ€⠄¢ debate of previous years. Figure 3 illustrates the understanding of sustainable tourism by movement advocates. As a label, large scale tourism is preferred to mass tourism, for it sheds the negative connotations.Viewed objectively, large scale tourism possesses strengths which could be used to advantage:  · The environment is attacked by other industries, such as mining and manufacturing (EIU, 1992; McKercher, 1993), and tourism is dependent on environmental quality. The tourism industry must protect its assets; size is important, as large players exert pressure through lobbying power.  · Large scale operators have the marketing and communication skills, plus contact opportunities in bulk, to actively foster interest in sustainable tourism amongst the millions of consumers who purchase their products. Large size confers influence over suppliers and distributors, which could be used as a persuasive force for the introduction of sustainable policies along the supply chain. Of c ourse, there are less altruistic reasons for large scale tourism to instigate movement towards the sustainable tourism goal. The imposition of environmental regulatory control by governments grappling with world problems of acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global warming require a minimum response of compliance.From the demand side, the rise of consumer interest in green issues (see ETB, 1992a, 1992b; Green, 1990) provides the classic incentive of consumer needs. The interest expressed by consumers through financial institutions in environmental practices is a further motive. There are over thirty an ag em en im ts pa ct ys -e as nv ses tem iro nm s s – re ent men use t al Guid , re au eline cyc di s for le, red t susta uce inab le to urism Equity Company/organisation focus ta lm s pac im cts al pa lob G im al sic y ph al/ gic olo Ec (’sustainable tourism’) Small scale tourism iro nm en En v -e nv iro nm e nt al A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Touri sm 229 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 environmental or ethical funds in the United Kingdom, representing approximately ? 750 million of investment; according to independent financial advisors Holden Meehan (1994), the idea of ‘profit with principle’ has moved from the fringe to the mainstream.Investors are stakeholders requiring satisfaction. There are many examples of large scale tourism proactively moving towards the goal of sustainable tourism (see Middleton & Hawkins, 1993, 1994; WTTERC, 1991–1994). British Airways was one of the first tourism companies to publish an environmental report (British Airways, 1991), the International Hotels Environment Initiative was a sector-specific project (Van Praag, 1992), whilst the ‘Green Globe’ programme was targeted across the tourism sectors (WTTERC, 1994).The World Travel & Tourism Council, a coalition of Chief Executive Officers from international tourism companies, established th e World Travel & Tourism Environment Research Centre (WTTERC) to monitor, assess and communicate objectives, strategies and action programmes in respect of environmental management (WTTERC, 1992). Over one hundred guidelines and codes of practice relating to tourism were identified (WTTERC, 1993); the environmental guidelines of the WTTERC itself provide a useful synopsis of the large scale understanding of sustainable tourism (WTTERC, 1992).As Figure 3 demonstrates, the focus of this approach is on the physical/ecological environment, with an emphasis on environmental management systems, incorporating techniques such as environmental audits of products, processes and issues, and environmental impact assessments. The fourth position of convergence The framework culminates in a position of convergence (see Figure 4). This position represents the latest understanding of sustainable tourism as a goal that all tourism, regardless of scale, must strive to achieve (see, for example, Inske ep, 1991).Accepting that the concept of sustainable tourism is still evolving, the absence of a precise goal definition is less important than general movement in the correct direction. Appreciating the wider role of sustainable development, this final position recognises two interpretations of sustainable tourism. The large scale interpretation of sustainable tourism (as portrayed in position three) has a dominantly physical/ecological perspective expressed as a business orientation. The small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism offers a social slant from a local or destination platform.It is akin to the understanding of sustainable tourism as alternative tourism under position one, except for the crucial recognition of the concept as a goal rather than a possession. Both interpretations:  · focus on the implementation of their current knowledge of sustainable tourism to move towards the ultimate goal of sustainability;  · seek future progress towards the desired goal t hrough the twin processes of further development of ideas inherent in their own interpretation and by adaptation of ideas found in the other.Together, this results in convergence towards the goal of sustainable tourism. For example, in this quest, large scale tourism is experimenting with techniques for inducing shifts in tourist behaviour compatible with environmentallyfriendly travel, an educational component instigated by the small scale enterprises. Thomsons now provide environmental guidelines for guests; TUI 230 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Large scale tourism al nm vi ro En Figure 4 Position 4: convergence ave produced an environment ranking for products featured in all their mainstream Euro-brochures. In turn, small scale enterprises are learning about the development of effective environmental management systems, originally the territory of large scale organisations. In the UK, the environmental audit was promoted fo r small scale concerns by the West Country Tourist Board’s (1993) ‘Green Audit Kit’; the project was then taken nationwide. In addition, by embracing sustainable development, both interpretations are receptive to further ideas generated from outside the tourism sector.Like large scale tourism (see position three), the small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism has produced guidelines and codes of good practice (see, for example, ETB, 1991; Countryside Commission, 1991; Green, 1990), established destination-based projects (for example, the Devon-based Tarka Project) and offered and disseminated advice to interested parties (ETB, 1992a, 1992b, 1993). -e nv iro nm en ta l en t im g olo Ec m an ag em y ph al/ ic al sic en ts pa ct ys -e as nv s e s te m ir o nm sm s – re en use tal ent Guid , re au eline cyc s for le, r dit sust edu aina ce ble t ouri sm Equity Company/organisation focus ba Gl p l im s act p im Sustainable Tourism Goal ts ac Local area identity focus Equity Guid e Loc lines for al c sust ont aina Ed rol ble t uc ouri ati To sm on u of Au ris hos tc th t/to e n ha r uri tic act st ity eri s ti cs s act ts mp pac y al i rit ultur l im a c teg loc In o cial/ tion/ a S stin De Small scale tourism A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 231 The completed framework Taken as a whole, the framework both structures and partially explains some of the conflicts and debates that have occurred in sustainable tourism.Although due regard should be given to the limitations of a framework based purely on a literature review and purporting to be complementary in nature rather than encompassing, it does present insights to past development whilst taking a view as to the direction of future advances. References Beioley, S. (1995) Green tourism: Soft or sustainable? English Tourist Board Insights, B75–B89. Boo, E. (1990) Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls. Washington, DC: World Wide Fund for Nature. Brackenbury, M . (1992) Ecotourism: Introduction to ecotourism — A sustainable option? The Bulletin of the Tourism Society 76, 10–12. Bramwell, B. 1991) Tourism environments and management. Tourism Management 12 (4), 363–4. British Airways (1991) British Airways Environmental Review: Heathrow and Worldwide Flying Operations. London: British Airways and Tecnica. Brown, F. (1991) Alternative tourism. English Tourist Board Insights, D27–D29. Buckley, R. (1993) International Centre for Ecotourism Research. Research Report 1993. Australia: Griffith University. Butler, R. W. (1990) Alternative tourism: Pious hope or Trojan Horse? Journal of Travel Research (3), 40–5. Butler, R. W. (1991) Tourism, environment, and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18 (3), 201–9.Butler, R. W. (1992) Alternative tourism: The thin edge of the wedge. In V. L. Smith, and W. R. Eadington (eds) Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Pitfalls in the Development of Tourism . Philadephia: University of Pennsylvania Press and the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. Cater, E. (1992) Profits from paradise. Geographical 64 (3), 16–21. Cazes, G. H. (1989) Alternative tourism: Reflections on an ambiguous concept. In T. V. Singh et al. (eds) Towards Appropriate Tourism: The Case of Developing Countries. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Cohen, E. (1972) Toward a sociology of international tourism.Social Research 39 (1), 164–82. Cohen, E. (1987) Alternative tourism: A critique. Tourism Recreation Research 12 (2), 13–18. Cohen, E. (1989) Primitive and remote: Hill tribe trekking in Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research 16 (1), 30–61. Cooper, C. et al. (1993) Tourism: Principles and Practice. London: Pitman Publishing. Countryside Commission (1991) Visitors to the Countryside: A Consultation Paper. Cheltenham: Countryside Commission. Davidson, R. (1992) Tourism in Europe. London: Pitman Publishing. De Kadt, E. (1990) Making the Altern ative Sustainable: Lessons from Development for Tourism.Sussex: Institute of Development Studies (DP 272). De Kadt, E. (1992) Making the alternative sustainable: Lessons from the development of tourism. In V. L. Smith and W. R. Eadington (eds) Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Pitfalls in the Development of Tourism. Philadephia: University of Pennsylvania Press and the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. Dernoi, L. A. (1988) Alternative or community-based tourism. In L. J. D’Amore and J. Jafari (eds) Tourism, a Vital Force for Peace. Vancouver, Canada: Color Art Inc. Economic Intelligence Unit (1992) The Tourism Industry and the Environment (special report no. 2453).London: EIU. English Tourist Board (1991) Tourism and the Environment: Maintaining the Balance. Report by the government task force. London: ETB and Employment Department Group. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 232 Journal of Sustainable Tourism English Tourist Board (1992a) T he Green Light: A Guide to Sustainable Tourism. London: ETB et al. English Tourist Board (1992b) Tourism in National Parks: A Guide to Good Practice. London: ETB et al. English Tourist Board (1993) Local Tourism Heritage Trust Guidelines. A Guide for Businesses and Associations Interested in Raising Money to Conserve the Environment.London: ETB et al. Farrell, B. H. and Runyan, D. (1991) Ecology and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 18, 26–40. Fennell, D. A. and Smale, B. J. A. (1992) Ecotourism and natural resource protection: Implications of an alternative form of tourism for host nations. Tourism Recreation Research 17 (1), 21–32. 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Smith and W. R. Eadington (eds) Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 233 Development of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennslyvania Press and the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. Przeclawski, K. (1993) Tourism as the subj ect of interdisciplinary research. In D.G. Pearce and R. W. Butler (eds) Tourism research: Critiques and Challenges. London: Routledge and the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. Richter, L. K. (1987) The search for appropriate tourism. Tourism Recreation Research 12 (2), 5–7. Tourism Concern (1992) Beyond the Green Horizon. London: Tourism Concern and World Wide Fund for Nature. Travis, A. S. (1988) Alternative tourism. Naturopa 59, 25–7. Valentine, P. S. (1993) Ecotourism and nature conservation. Tourism Management 14 (2), 107–15. Van Praag, H. J. (1992) Industrial leadership: A practical example in the hotel industry.Tourism and the Environment: Challenges and Choices for the 90s, November, 62–66. West Country Tourist Board (1993) Green Audit Kit. Exeter: WCTB. Wheeller, B. (1990) Is sustainable tourism appropriate? In F. Howie (ed. ) The Proceedings of the Sustainable Tourism Development Conference. Edinburgh, Queen Margaret College, Novem ber. Wheeller, B. (199la) Is progressive tourism appropriate? Tourism and Hospitality Management: Established Disciplines or Ten Year Wonders? Guildford: University of Surrey. Wheeller, B. (199lb) Tourism’s troubled times: Responsible tourism is not the answer.Tourism Management 12 (2), 91–6. Wight, P. (1995) Sustainable ecotourism: Balancing economic, environmental and social goals within an ethical framework. Tourism Recreation Research 20 (1), 5–13. World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 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Technology and the Minds of Man Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Technology and the Minds of Man - Essay Example Einstein's theories have made spaceflight, nuclear energy, and the discovery of universes beyond our own possible, but the question still haunts us; can an atomic bomb fall into the hands of a global tyrant. Today's technology has made it possible to peer into a man's life, follow his every move, create his most intimate moods, and build an offspring to his exacting specifications. Science can hold the keys to progress or build the doomsday machine. Still, the scientists have no obligation to assure that the science they create will be used responsibly. It is the citizens of the global community that are given the task to make an ethically sound decision. Science's simple goals are to discover and create, while it is society that needs to exert the cultural pressures needed to control our runaway technology. The horror stories that relate to the egregious misuse of technology fill our headlines on a daily basis. The war on terror has been used as a justification for using cutting edge technology to spy on American citizens, as well as hunt down and interrogate the nation's alleged enemies. While the human intuition recoils in fear and disgust at the insideous use of science to interrogate prisoners, the argument in favor of it is neither new or without merit. Michael Koubi, a former chief interrogator for Israel's General Security Services, has for decades been, "experimenting with captive human beings, cajoling, tricking, hurting, threatening, and spying on them, steadily upping the pressure, looking for cracks at the seams" (Bowden). Sixty-five years ago pharmaceutical giant Eli Lilly experimented with altering the moods of primates by implanting electrodes in their brain (Bowden). It has been widely reported that these technologies are currently being used to interrogate terrorists b y the US government and its agents. Government secrets are often slow to surface, and they may have newer and more effective methods that are yet to be reported. Yet, Eli Lilly is not the morally responsible agent for the decision to put their technology to use on an involuntary human subject. Advocates point to the necessity of getting time sensitive information from a suspect, and technical interrogation is often helpful in saving thousands of innocent lives. Indeed, an educated person can make a solid moral argument for sacrificing one criminal's suffering to save thousands of blameless victims. However, there is a point on the scale of morality where we begin to fall down the slippery slope to anarchy and chaos, where we violate the humanness of mankind. Society, the government, and the law need to be firm, decisive, and ethical in their effort to control these centuries old urges, techniques, and strategies. The use of technology is no more controversial than it is when it involves the sanctity of the human body. Medicine can transplant vital organs, regenerate body parts, and sustain life well beyond the natural term. Today, medical science has almost made it possible to order a baby as easily as we order a cheeseburger at a drive-up window. Genetic manipulation will soon offer people the opportunity to select a baby's most detailed traits such as hair color, musical

40 questions about corporate finance Coursework

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Business Project Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Project - Coursework Example Moreover, for maintaining its competitive advantages, the company has focused on satisfaction of its customers, employees and business partners such as its dealers, investors and suppliers among others. The vision and mission of Vauxhall Motors is to expand its business operation around the world with considering its core values of honesty, integrity as well as professionalism. In this regard, it is identified that the company exports a larger proportion of vehicles (80% out overall production) in the global market (General Motors UK Limited, 2014). In the recent years, Vauxhall Motors has been trying to develop new heavy motorcycle in the market place, with the aim of capturing the two wheelers nationally and internationally. The company has identified that two-wheeler market is one of the emerging markets across the globe over the last decade. The two-wheeler industry has witnessed positive volume of growth during the last few years. Simultaneously, the company has identified that the demand of motor cycle has been positively increasing among the consumers in the recent years. At the same time, the company has also recognised that due to high market demand, several existing motor cycle manufacturers are concentrated on the total quality management system with the aim of enhancing the performance and excellence of the motor bikes. Thus, Vauxhall Motors has tried to introduce a new heavy motorcycle with the intention of enhancing the profitability and acquiring high market share in global market place (General Motors UK Limited , 2014). Analysis of the Context In order to determine the internal situation of Vauxhall Motors, it will be vital to apply ‘SWOT’ analysis method for better understanding the current situation of the company. According to the report of Global Data (2012), Vauxhall Motors is one of the leading automotive players in the global market

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Current Events Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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What are the moral responsibilities of managers Essay

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Lab Report about primula Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

About primula - Lab Report Example The practical aimed at documenting the observations accurately and developing meaningful observational skills. To achieve the practical objectives, a dissecting microscope and a compound microscope were used to compare the pin and thrum parts of the flower in a morphological manner. Again, collection of measurements was done to evidence the dimorphism. In the practical, it was established that the two flower forms are significantly different in their morphological structures. Their differences are readily visible through the size and structure of their styles, anthers, petals, and other aspects as seen in this lab report. Primula vulgaris is one of the largest and commonest genera of the Primulaceae and is mainly centred in temperate regions especially the mountainous areas within the northern hemisphere. The pollination of the flower is usually aided by human activities that promote insect pollination. In this case, insect pollinators visiting the flowers to look for nectar help in the pollination process. The species flowers are known by dustily that is mainly characterized through the development of pin flowers that are long and styled. These flowers also have anthers that head midway down flower’s corolla tube as well as some short-styled thrum flowers that have anthers positioned at the corolla-tube’s mouth (Webb & Lloyd, 1986). Typically, heterostyly is a common feature for the Primula genus whereby most of the species are distylous according to Richards (1993). The pollen morphology of all species has been previously investigated, but there are no surveys related to the Primula vulgaris species have ever been found. This argument provides that only a close investigation of the Primula vulgaris would provide a better understanding of the reproductive biology of the species reproduction biology. With regard to this species, most of its flowering plants have been found to be hermaphrodite

Patient Rights Essay Example for Free

Patient Rights Essay Patient rights are also human rights. Every patient deserves to be treated respectfully and with every intention of helping patients improve their health. Due to past historical events, there was a need for the creation of two documents that give patients protection and rights when it comes to clinical experiments. These events were experiments that were conducted unethically and violated human rights. The names of these documents are: The Nuremberg Code and The Belmont Report. The first one that was created in the 1940’s was The Nuremberg Code which relates to the events that happened during the holocaust. Nazi physicians were responsible for performing malicious experiments on prisoners in the concentration camps. The Belmont Report was created later after the discovery of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. In this study, which was conducted from 1930-1972, African American men were deceived into thinking they were being treated for syphilis when they actually were not. Even after the discovery that penicillin was an effective treatment for this disease, many men were still left untreated and left to die unnecessarily. The â€Å"Doctors’ Trial† was one of the main trials conducted after World War II in Nuremberg, Germany. This was an international trial made up of judges from the United States, Britain, France, and the former Soviet Union. This trial involved 23 defendants, 20 of them being physicians, all accused of torturing and murdering prisoners in concentration camps with the use of medical experiments. Sixteen of the 23 defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death, life in prison, 25 years, fifteen years and ten years in prison. The remaining seven were acquitted. After conclusion of the trial, the judges felt a strong need for an additional way to protect human research subjects. This is when they created the ten research principles now known as The Nuremberg Code. As the Hippocratic ethics was great for physician-patient relationships, it did not fit so well with scientific research. Everything changes because the primary goal of the physician is no longer the patient, but instead the results of his or her experiment. The Nuremberg Code solves this conflict. The first and main principle of the Nuremberg Code makes the voluntary consent of human subjects absolutely essential. Experiments should not be random or unnecessary; they should be in search of beneficial results. It should be based on experimentation of animals and help prove positive effects are the result. Mental and physical suffering or injury should absolutely be avoided. No study shall be performed when there is a risk of death or severe injury involved. The potential risks should never exceed the potential benefits. Sufficient preparations must be made and acceptable facilities must be used in order to protect against injuries, disabilities, or death. Only qualified individuals may perform such studies and the highest possible skill and care shall be applied throughout the entire process. Subjects will always hold the power to end the experiment at any time they feel is necessary for their own well-being. And last of all the scientist in charge must end an experiment as soon as there might be any reason to believe that there is a possibility that continuation of the study could result in injury, disability, or death to any of the participating subjects. In Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment the Nuremberg Code was disregarded and still continued to be sponsored by the U. S. government. The reason for this may be because the code and principles were not regulated and could not be enforced by laws. In 1978 the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) published the Belmont Report. The Belmont Report is made up of three basic ethical principles which are: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. All persons asked to be in a study should have total autonomy and complete control of their decisions. For beneficence researcher should not only attempt to achieve maximum benefits for the subjects, but also minimize all risks. Justice states all people should be treated fairly and benefits and problems should be distributed fairly as well. These are now regulation guidelines and remain the main focus to protect humans as subjects. To this present day the Belmont Report continues to be used as a reference for institutional review boards (IRB) which ensure that human based research follow all ethical regulations and guidelines. Anytime experiments on humans are being conducted, ethical issues will always be involved. With the creation of these two documents it helps determine whether a clinical trial is ethical or not. First of all the experiment must have some kind of social or scientific value in which it may produce results that will benefit health and well-being or even increase knowledge on a certain subject. Only qualified scientists or physicians are allowed to perform such studies using methods and techniques that will produce reliable results. Subjects must be chosen fairly. The risks of the study must be minimized while the benefits maximized, or at the least benefits and risks should be proportionate. Informed consent means subjects will be informed on the purpose of the research, its risks, benefits, and alternatives. This helps to make informed decisions and also subject have the power to end the study at any time. Subjects will also be provided confidentiality, information on any new discoveries and results of the studies. These documents not only provide protection and safety for test subjects, but it also protects certain individuals from being participants in any studies. There are certain populations or groups of people that cannot be selected for studies for certain reasons. Adults are preferred subjects over children. Individuals must be competent in order to give informed consent, which would eliminate using mentally ill people as subjects for a study. Prisoners should also be excluded as test subjects as they are already in a forced position. There must be a certain criteria met in order to use any of these subjects in a research study. I find it to be a real shame that the Nuremberg Code was overlooked in many studies performed in the United States after its creation. It was not regulated and it was not against the law to not follow these codes of ethics on research. Although it took a series of unfortunate events to come up with the Belmont Report, it sure is nice to know there is protection now for human test subjects. The creation of Institutional Review Boards (IRB) to enforce that studies are being conducted under ethical guidelines and researchers are following these rules was essential in helping to improve the search for better health in this country. This will continue to guide our effort as well as change when other issues arise. The good thing is that I do not seeing it ever changing much more as all the most important ethical issues is covered by these documents when performing any research on human subjects.

Electric Filed Strength And Electric Flux Density

Electric Filed Strength And Electric Flux Density All bodies are made up of atoms, which consist of a nucleus containing protons (+ve) and neutrons (neutral) and surrounding the nucleus are orbiting electrons (-ve). When a body is uncharged it is electrically neutral, it has the same negative charge as positive charge. If a conductor had a deficit of electrons it would exhibit a net positive charge and if it was to have a surplus of electrons it would exhibit a net negative charge (remember the previous study of the atom reference +ve/-ve ions). An imbalance in charge can be produced by friction (removing or depositing electrons using materials such as silk and fur, respectively) or induction (by attracting or repelling electrons using a second body which is, respectively, positively or negatively charged). Coulombs Law states that if charged bodies exist at two points, the force of attraction (if the charges are of opposite polarity) or repulsion (if the charges have the same polarity) will be proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges divided by the square of their distance apart. Thus: + + + Direct Inverse Proportionality Maths Q1 and Q2 are the charges present at the two points (in Coulombs), d is the distance separating the two points (in metres), F is the force (in Newtons), and k is a mathematical constant depending upon the medium in which the charges exist. In a vacuum or free space, ÃŽÂ µ0 is the permittivity of free space (8.854 x 10-12 F/m Farad per meter). The force exerted on a charged particle is a manifestation of the existence of an electric field. The electric field defines the direction and magnitude of a force on a charged object. The field itself is invisible to the human eye but can be drawn by constructing lines which indicate the motion of a free positive charge within the field; the number of field lines in a particular region being used to indicate the relative strength of the field at the point in question. The figure above shows the electric fields between charges of the same and opposite polarity. The figure below shows the field which exists between two charged parallel plates. B A As illustrated above, plates A and B are doped and charged to different potentials. If an electron that has a negative charge is placed between the plates, a force will act on the electron tending to push it away from the negative plate B and towards the positive plate A. Similarly, a positive charge would be acted on by a force tending to move it toward the negative plate. The region between the plates in which an electric charge experiences a force, is called an electrostatic field. The direction of the field is defined by the force acting on a positive charge placed in the field, i.e. the direction of the force is from the positive plate to the negative plate. Such a field may be represented in magnitude and direction by lines of electric force drawn between the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is an indication of the field strength. Whenever a p.d. is established between two points, an electric field will always exist. The figure above shows two parallel conducting plates separated from each other by air, and are connected to opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts. There is therefore an electric field in the space between the plates. If the plates are close together, the electric lines of force will be straight and parallel and equally spaced, except near the edge where fringing will occur (see previous figure). Over the area in which there is negligible fringing, E is the electric field strength (V/m), V is the applied potential difference across the parallel plates (V) and d is the distance (m). **Note: Electric Field Strength is also called Potential/Voltage Gradient. A unit electric flux is defined as emanating from a positive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux à Ã‹â€  is measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q coulombs, the electric flux à Ã‹â€  is equal to Q coulombs. Electric flux density D is the amount of flux passing through a defined area A that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux: à Ã‹â€  is the electric flux measured in coulombs, Q is the electric charge also measured in coulombs, and A is the area in m2 over which the flux is distributed. Problem 1: Two parallel rectangular plates measuring 20cm by 40cm carry an electric charge of 0.2  µC. (a) Calculate the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density. (b) If the plates are spaced 5mm apart and the voltage between them is 0.25 kV determine the electric field strength. Solution 1: PERMITTIVITY At any point in an electric field, the electric field strength E maintains the electric flux and produces a particular value of electric flux density D at that point. For a field established in vacuum (or for practical purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant ÃŽÂ µ0, i.e. ÃŽÂ µ0 is called the permittivity of free space or the free space constant. The value of ÃŽÂ µ0 is 8.854 x 10-12 F/m Farad per meter. When a dielectric (i.e. insulating medium separating charged surfaces), such as mica, paper, plastic or ceramic is introduced into the region of an electric field, the ratio of D/E is modified. ÃŽÂ µr is called the relative permittivity of the insulating material and indicates its insulating power compared with that of vacuum. ÃŽÂ µr has no units and typical properties of some common insulating dielectric materials are shown below. The product of ÃŽÂ µ0 ÃŽÂ µr is called the absolute permittivity, ÃŽÂ µ, i.e. As discussed earlier, the dielectric is an insulating medium separating charged surfaces and has the property of very high resistivity. They are therefore used to separate conductors at different potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric power lines. The dielectric strength of an insulating dielectric is the maximum electric field strength that can safely be applied to it before breakdown (conduction) occurs. The amount of charge produced for a given applied voltage on the two parallel plates shown earlier will depend not only on the physical dimensions but also on the insulating dielectric material that appears between the plates. Such materials need to have a very high value of resistivity (i.e. they must not conduct charge) coupled with an ability to withstand high voltages without breaking down. A more practical arrangement of parallel plates with an insulating dielectric material is shown. In this arrangement the ratio of charge, Q, to the potential difference, V, is given by the following relationship. A = area of one on the plates, in m2 D = thickness of the dielectric in m ÃŽÂ µ = absolute permittivity of the dielectric material *Later learning, i.e. the parallel plate capacitor/capacitance and physical dimensions. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ single pair of plates à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ arrangement of n plates Problem 1: The  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density between two plates separated by mica of relative permittivity 5 is 2 µC/m2. Find the voltage gradient between the plates. Solution 1: Problem 2: Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 200V between them are spaced 0.8mm apart. What is the electric  ¬Ã‚ eld strength? Find also the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density when the dielectric between the plates is (a) air, and (b) polythene of relative permittivity 2.3 Solution 2: SELF ASSESSMENT (1-2) NOTE: Where appropriate take ÃŽÂ µ0 as 8.85 x 10-12 F/m A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04mm thick and operates at 30V. What is the electric field strength across the dielectric at this voltage? [Answer: 750kV/m] A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25C. If the effective area of each plate is 5cm2 determine the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density of the electric field. [Answer: 50 kC/m2] A charge of 1.5 µC is carried on two parallel rectangular plates each measuring 60mm by 80mm. (a) Calculate the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density. (b) If the plates are spaced 10mm apart and the voltage between them is 0.5kV determine the electric  ¬Ã‚ eld strength. [Answer: (a) 312.5 µC/m2, (b) 50kV/m] Two parallel plates are separated by a dielectric and charged with 10 µC. Given that the area of each plate is 50cm2, calculate the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density in the dielectric separating the plates. [Answer: 2mC/m2] The electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density between two plates separated by polystyrene of relative permittivity 2.5 is 5 µC/m2. Find the voltage gradient between the plates. [Answer: 226kV/m] Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 250V between them are spaced 1mm apart. (a) Determine the electric  ¬Ã‚ eld strength. (b) Find also the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density when the dielectric between the plates is (i) air and (ii) mica of relative permittivity 5. [Answer: (a) 250kV/m (bi) 2.213 µC/m2 (bii) 11.063 µC/m2] CAPACITORS CAPACITANCE A capacitor is a device for storing electric charge. In effect, it is a reservoir into which charge can be deposited and then later extracted. In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates which are separated by an insulating material known as a dielectric. C:Documents and SettingsHarveyMy DocumentsMy PicturesPicturePicture 028.jpg Because of the dielectric, current cannot flow from one plate to the other. When the capacitor is connected to a dc source, electrons accumulate on the plate connected to the negative supply terminal. The negative charge repels electrons from the atoms of the other plate. These electrons flow away to the positive terminal of the dc source; this leaves the plate positively charged. C:Documents and SettingsHarveyMy DocumentsMy PicturesPicturePicture 032.jpg If the capacitor is disconnected from the supply, the charges remain. The capacitor stores the electric charge indefinitely. The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are shown below. Typical applications include reservoir and smoothing capacitors for use in power supplies, coupling a.c. signals between the stages of amplifiers, and decoupling supply rails (i.e. effectively grounding the supply rails as far as a.c. signals are concerned). The following figures illustrate what happens to a capacitor when it is charging and discharging. If the switch is left open (position A), no charge will appear on the plates and in this condition there will be no electric field in the space between the plates nor will there be any charge stored in the capacitor. When the switch is moved to position B, electrons will be attracted from the positive plate to the positive terminal of the battery. At the same time, a similar number of electrons will move from the negative terminal of the battery to the negative plate. This sudden movement of electrons will manifest itself in a momentary surge of current (conventional current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery towards the positive terminal of the capacitor). Eventually, enough electrons will have moved to make the e.m.f. between the plates the same as that of the battery. In this state, the capacitor is said to be fully charged and an electric field will be present in the space between the two plates. If, at some later time the switch is moved back to position A, the positive plate will be left with a deficiency of electrons whilst the negative plate will be left with a surplus of electrons. Furthermore, since there is no path for current to flow between the two plates the capacitor will remain charged and a potential difference will be maintained between the plates. Now assume that the switch is moved to position C. The excess electrons on the negative plate will flow through the resistor to the positive plate until a neutral state once again exists (i.e. until there is no excess charge on either plate). In this state the capacitor is said to be fully discharged and the electric field between the plates will rapidly collapse. The movement of electrons during the discharging of the capacitor will again result in a momentary surge of current (current will flow from the positive terminal of the capacitor and into the resistor). The figure below shows the direction of current flow during charging (i.e. the switch in position B) and discharging (i.e. the switch in position C). It should be noted that current flows momentarily in both circuits even though you may think that the circuit is broken by the gap between the capacitor plates! The charge Q (in coulombs) stored in a capacitor is given by: I is the current in amperes and t is the time in seconds. Charge Q on a capacitor is proportional to the applied voltage V, i.e. Q V. Direct Inverse Proportionality Maths Q = CV The constant of proportionality C is the capacitance. The unit of capacitance C is the farad F (or more usually  µF =10-6F or pF =10-12F), and is defined as the capacitance when a p.d. of one volt appears across the plates when charged with one coulomb. Capacitance is the ability of a circuit or object (i.e. in this case a capacitor) to store electric charge. Problem 1: (a) Determine the p.d. across a 4  µF capacitor when charged with 5 mC (b) Find the charge on a 50 pF capacitor when the voltage applied to it is 2 kV. Solution 1: Problem 2: A direct current of 4A flows into a previously uncharged 20  µF capacitor for 3 ms. Determine the p.d. between the plates. Solution 2: Problem 3: A 5 µF capacitor is charged so that the p.d. between its plates is 800V. Calculate how long the capacitor can provide an average discharge current of 2 mA. Solution 3: SELF ASSESSMENT (3) Find the charge on a 10  µF capacitor when the applied voltage is 250 V. (Answer: 2.5 mC) Determine the voltage across a 1000à Ã‚ F capacitor to charge it with 2  µC. (Answer: 2 kV) The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC when the potential between them is 2.4 kV. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor. (Answer: 2.5  µF) For how long must a charging current of 2 A be fed to a 5  µF capacitor to raise the p.d. between its plates by 500V. (Answer: 1.25 ms) A direct current of 10 A flows into a previously uncharged 5  µF capacitor for 1 ms. Determine the p.d. between the plates. (Answer: 2 kV) A 16  µF capacitor is charged at a constant current of 4  µA for 2 minutes. Determine the final p.d. across the capacitor and the corresponding charge in coulombs. (Answer: 30V, 480  µC) A steady current of 10 A flows into a previously uncharged capacitor for 1.5 ms when the p.d. between the plates is 2 kV. Find the capacitance of the capacitor. (Answer: 7.5 µF) CAPACITANCE AND PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS (Conventional Parallel Plate Capacitor) The capacitance of a capacitor depends upon the physical dimensions of the capacitor (i.e. the size of the plates and the separation between them) and the dielectric material between the plates. The capacitance of a conventional parallel plate capacitor is given by: Where, C = Capacitance, unit of measure farads (F) ÃŽÂ µ0 = Permittivity of free space or the free space constant (8.85 x 10-12 F/m) ÃŽÂ µr = Relative permittivity of the dielectric medium between the plates (ÃŽÂ µr has no units as it is a ratio of density material/vacuum) A = Area of one of the plates (m2) d = Thickness of the dielectric or separation between the plates (m) In order to increase the capacitance of a capacitor, many practical components employ multiple plates as shown. Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates. Such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  (n -1). Thus capacitance is then given by: Problem 1: A ceramic capacitor has an effective plate area of 4cm2 and separated by 0.1 mm of ceramic of relative permittivity 100. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor in picofarads (à Ã‚ F). If the capacitor in part (a) is given a charge of 1.2 µC what will be the p.d. between the plates? Solution 1: Problem 2: A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each of effective area 800 cm2. If the capacitance of the capacitor is 4425 pF determine the effective thickness of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2.5. Solution 2: Problem 3: A parallel plate capacitor has nineteen interleaved plates each 75 mm by 75 mm and separated by mica sheets 0.2 mm thick. Assuming that the relative permittivity of the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. Solution 3: n = 19, thus (n 1) = 18 A = 75 x 75 = 5625mm2 ÃŽÂ µr = 5, ÃŽÂ µ0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m d = 0.2mm = 0.2 x 10-3m SELF ASSESSMENT (4) ** Where appropriate take ÃŽÂ µ0 as 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. A capacitor consists of two parallel plates each of area 0.01 m2, spaced 0.1 mm in air. Calculate the capacitance in picofarads (pF). [Answer: 885 pF] A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each of effective area 0.2m2. If the capacitance is 4000 pF determine the effective thickness of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2. [Answer: 0.885 mm] Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having 5 plates, each 30 mm by 20 mm and separated by a dielectric 0.75 mm thick having a relative permittivity of 2.3. [Answer: 65.14 pF] How many plates does a parallel plate capacitor have if its capacitance is 5nF, each plate is 40mm by 40mm and each dielectric is 0.102mm thick with a relative permittivity of 6? [Answer: 7] A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25 plates, each 70mm by 120mm interleaved with mica of relative permittivity 5. If the capacitance of the capacitor is 3000pF determine the thickness of the mica sheet. [Answer: 2.97mm] The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 1000pF. It has 19 plates, each 50mm by 30mm separated by a dielectric of thickness 0.40mm. Determine the relative permittivity of the dielectric. [Answer: 1.67] CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL AND SERIES CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL The figure above shows three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel with a supply voltage V applied across the arrangement. (Note: just like resistors in parallel, the supply voltage V is the same across each parallel capacitor) V = V1 = V2 = V3 When the charging current I reaches point A it divides, some flowing into C1, some flowing into C2 and some into C3. Hence the total charge QT (i.e. QT= I x t) is divided between the three capacitors. The capacitors each store a charge and these are shown as Q1, Q2 and Q3 respectively. Hence, But, QT=CV (where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance) And, Q1=C1V Q2=C2V Q3=C3V Therefore, CV = C1V + C2V + C3V (where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance) Dividing throughout by the common V giving, C = C1 + C2 + C3 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. + Cn The equivalent capacitance of a group of parallel connected capacitors is the sum of the capacitances of the individual capacitors. CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN SERIES The figure above shows three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 connected in series across a supply voltage V. Let the p.d. across the individual capacitors be V1, V2 and V3 respectively as shown. Let the charge on the plate a of the capacitor C1 be +Q coulombs. This induces and equal but opposite charge of -Q coulombs on plate b. The conductor between plates b and c is electrically isolated from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but opposite charge of +Q coulombs must appear on plate c, which, in turn, induces an equal and opposite charge of -Q coulombs on plate d, and so on. Hence when capacitors are connected in series the charge on each is the same. QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 In a series circuit: V = V1 + V2 + V3 (Similar to resistors in series) Since, then (where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance) Dividing throughout by the common Q giving, (Where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance) For series connected capacitors, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitance. For special case of two capacitors in series, Hence, i.e. Problem 1: Calculate the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors of 6ÃŽÂ ¼F and 4ÃŽÂ ¼F connected in (a) Parallel (b) Series. Solution 1: Problem 2: What capacitance must be connected in series with a 30ÃŽÂ ¼F capacitor for the equivalent capacitance to be 12ÃŽÂ ¼F? Solution 2: Problem 3: Capacitances of 1ÃŽÂ ¼F, 3ÃŽÂ ¼F, 5ÃŽÂ ¼F and 6ÃŽÂ ¼F are connected in parallel to a direct voltage supply of 100V. Determine (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the total charge and (c) the charge on each capacitor. Solution 3: Problem 4: Capacitances of 3ÃŽÂ ¼F, 6ÃŽÂ ¼F and 12ÃŽÂ ¼F are connected in series across a 350V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each capacitor, and (c) the p.d. across each capacitor. Solution 4: Problem 5: For the arrangement shown, find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the circuit, (b) the voltage across QR and (c) The charge on each capacitor. Solution 5: SELF ASSESSMENT (5) Capacitors of 2 µF and 6 µF are connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the equivalent capacitance in each case. [Answers: (a) 8ÃŽÂ ¼F (b) 1.5ÃŽÂ ¼F] Find the capacitance to be connected in series with a 10 µF capacitor for the equivalent capacitance to be 6 µF. [Answer: 15ÃŽÂ ¼F] What value of capacitance would be obtained if capacitors of 0.15 µF and 0.10 µF are connected in (a) series and (b) parallel? [Answers: (a) 0.06ÃŽÂ ¼F (b) 0.25ÃŽÂ ¼F] Two 6 µF capacitors are connected in series with one having a capacitance of 12 µF. Find the total equivalent circuit capacitance. What capacitance must be added in series to obtain a capacitance of 1.2 µF? [Answers: (a) 2.4ÃŽÂ ¼F (b) 2.4ÃŽÂ ¼F] For the arrangement shown below, find (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance and (b) the voltage across a 4.5ÃŽÂ ¼F capacitor. [Answers: (a) 1.2ÃŽÂ ¼F (b) 100V] Three 12 µF capacitors are connected in series across a 750V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent capacitance, (b) the charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d. across each capacitor. [Answers: (a) 4 µF (b) 3mC (c) 250V] If two capacitors having capacitances of 3 µF and 5 µF respectively are connected in series across a 240V supply, determine (a) the p.d. across each capacitor and (b) the charge on each capacitor. [Answers: (a) 150V, 90V (b) 0.45 mC on each] Capacitances of 4 µF, 8 µF and 16 µF are connected in parallel across a 200V supply. Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance, (b) the total charge and (c) the charge on each capacitor. [Answers: (a) 28  µF (b) 5.6mC (c) 0.8mC, 1.6mC, 3.2mC] DIELECTRIC STRENGTH The maximum safe working voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied to the terminals of a capacitor without causing damage to the capacitor. The manufacturer specifies this voltage. The limit is necessary so that the field strength in the dielectric does not exceed a value that would cause the dielectric to breakdown and loose its insulating properties. The figure quoted by the manufacturer for a capacitor is also known as the dielectric strength and will be in volts per metre. E is the dielectric strength (V/m), V is the applied potential difference across the parallel plates (V) and d is the distance (m). **Note: Equation identical to Electric Field Strength (Potential/Voltage Gradient). Problem1: A capacitor is to be constructed so that its capacitance is 0.2 µF and to take a p.d. of 1.25kV across its terminals. The dielectric is to be mica and has a dielectric strength of 50MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the mica needed, and (b) the area of a plate assuming a two-plate construction. (Assume ÃŽÂ µr for mica to be 6). Solution 1: ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by, Where, W is the energy (in Joules), C is the capacitance (in Farads), and V is the potential difference (in Volts). Problem 1: (a) Determine the energy stored in a 3 µF capacitor when charged to 400V. (b) Find also the average power developed if this energy is dissipated in a time of 10 µs. Solution 1: Problem 2: A 12 µF capacitor is required to store 4J of energy. Find the p.d. to which the capacitor must be charged. Solution 2: Problem 3: A capacitor is charged with 10mC. If the energy stored is 1.2J, determine (a) the voltage and (b) the capacitance. Solution 3: SELF ASSESSMENT (6) ** Where appropriate take ÃŽÂ µ0 as 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. When a capacitor is connected across a 200V supply the charge is 4 µC. Find (a) the capacitance and (b) the energy stored. [Answer: (a) 0.02 µF (b) 0.4mJ] Find the energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor when charged to 2kV. [Answer: 20 J] A 3300pF capacitor is required to store 0.5mJ of energy. Find the p.d. to which the capacitor must be charged. [Answer: 550 V] A capacitor is charged with 8mC. If the energy stored is 0.4J, determine (a) the voltage and (b) the capacitance. [Answer: (a) 100V (b) 80  µF] A capacitor, consisting of two metal plates each of area 50 cm2 and spaced 0.2mm apart in air, is connected across a 120V supply. Calculate (a) the energy stored (b) the electric  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ux density and (c) the potential gradient (i.e. electric field strength). [Answer: (a) 1.593 µJ (b) 5.31 µC/m2 (c) 600kV/m] D.C TRANSIENTS Networks of capacitors and resistors (known as C-R circuits) form the basis of many timing and pulse shaping circuits and are thus often found in practical electronic circuits. When a d.c. voltage is applied to a capacitor C and resistor R connected in series, there is a short period of time immediately after when the voltage is connected that the current flowing in the circuit and voltages across C and R are changing. These changing values are called transients. CHARGING A CAPACITOR The figure above shows a series connected C-R circuit. When the switch S is closed, then by Kirchhoffs valotage law: V = Vc + VR The battery voltage V is constant. The capacitor voltage Vc is given by, The voltage drop across R (i.e. VR) is given by, Hence at all times: At the instant of closing S (i.e. initial circuit condition), assuming there is no initial charge on the capacitor, Q is zero (i.e. Q0), hence Vc is zero (i.e. VC0). (Note: From equation Vc = Q / C). Thus from equation V = Vc + VR, V = 0 + VR (i.e. V = VR = IR) A short time later at time T1 seconds after closing S, the capacitor is partly charged to, say, Q1 coulombs because current has been flowing. The voltage VC1 is now, If the current flowing is I1 amperes, then the voltage drop across R has fallen to VR1 = I1R volts. Thus from equation V = Vc + VR A short time later still, say at time T2 seconds after closing S, the charge has increased to Q2 coulombs and VC has increased to, Since V = VC + VR and V is a constant, then VR decreases to I2R. Thus VC is increasing and I and VR are decreasing as time increases. Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S (i.e. at the final or steady state condition), the capacitor is fully charged to, say Q coulombs, current no longer flows, i.e. I = 0, and hence VR = IR = 0. It follows from equation V = Vc + VR that V = VC. Curves showing the changes in VC, VR and I with time are shown below. The curve showing the variation of VC with time is called an exponential growth curve and the graph is called the capacitor voltage / time characteristic. The curves showing variations of VR and I with time are called exponential decay curves, and the graphs are called resistor voltage / time and current / time characteristics respectively. The name exponential shows that the shape can be expressed mathematically by an exponential mathematical equation, as shown below. Growth of capacitor voltage, Decay of resistor voltage, Decay of resistor current, TIME CONSTANT (à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ TAU) FOR A C-R CIRCUIT As shown earlier, if a constant d.c. voltage is applied to a series connected C-R circuit, a exponential transient growth curve of capacitor voltage VC results as shown below. With reference to the figure below, the constant voltage supply is replaced by a variable voltage supply at time t1 seconds. The voltage is varied so that the current flowing in the circuit is constant. Since the current flowing is a constant, the curve will follow a tangent, AB, drawn to the curve at point A. Let the capacitor voltage VC reach its final value of V at time t2 seconds. The time corresponding to (t2-t1) seconds is called the time constant of the circuit, denoted by the Greek letter tau, à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾. The value of the time constant is CR seconds, i.e. for a series connected C-R circuit, (seconds) Where C is capacitance (F), R is the resistance (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦) and à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ is the time constant (s) DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR When a capacitor is charged (i.e. with the switch in position A), and the switch is then moved to position B, the electrons stored in the capacitor keep the current flowing for a short time. Initially, at the instant of moving from A to B, the current flow is such that the capacitor voltage VC is balanced by equal and opposite voltage (Kirchhoffs 2nd law), i.e. VC = VR = IR. Finally the transients decay exponentially as current is reduced to zero, i.e. VC = VR = 0. The transient curve representing the voltages and current are shown below. The equations representing the transient curves during discharge period of a series connected C-R circuit are: Decay of voltage, Decay of current, When a capacitor has been disconnected from the supply it may still be charged and it may retain this charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is automatically discharged after the supply is switched off. This is done by connecting a high value resistor across the capacitor terminals. Problem 1: A capacitor is charg